Acknowledgements
Thank you to Azel Geist for providing me with the inspiration to write this poem.
《鷖詣醫鷁憶·汐洛思》
鷖壹弋鷁，鷁殪，鷖逸。
鷖已唈，偯；疑，倚異意。
鷖詣醫鷁，鷁黓，翼黟。
鷁醫憶，“鷖異亄，齮肄！”
鷁醫咦：“噫！刈鷖翼！”
鷖佁肄譯，弋鷁，黟圛。
伊黓鷁殪。
以譯鷖。
“The Memory of a Seagull Visiting an Egret” by Llinos Evans
This poem’s rhyme cannot be replicated in English.
The Seagull single-mindedly hunts and shoots an Egret; the Egret falls, the Seagull flees.
Guilt chokes the Seagull: Alas! Paranoid, it leans on unusual thoughts.
The Seagull sees one Doctor Egret; Egret is skilled, wings black as naught.
Doctor Egret remembers: “Seagull is abhorrent, such biting cruelty!”
The Egret hisses: “Ah! Cut off Seagull’s wings, please!”
The Seagull hesitates, processing. Shooting the Egret dead, a dark mist falls coldly.
Try to interpret the Seagull.
Background: The One-Syllable Article
This poem takes inspiration from the work of Yuen Ren Chao, a linguist who produced three one-syllable articles (同音文章 tóngyīn wénzhāng) poems in the 1930s: 《施氏食狮史》The Story of Mr. Shi Eating Lions, 《漪姨》Aunt Yi, and《饥鸡集机记》The Hungry Chicken's Story (Chao, 1980). The trio were most famously showcased in one of his major works, Yuyan Wenti (Chao, 1968), though they were made at different times. Despite their strange names and even narratives, the symbolism is incredibly deep (Chao, 1980; Ceng and Chu, 2022)1. He called them stories in his original text, but they are often referred to as, and in my opinion are, poems. He Hengxing (2018, 2019) has written admirable work on this subject, even showing ways to lengthen the work within the syntactic constraints.
Chao’s trilogy of works was originally made to demonstrate the homophony of Mandarin Chinese in comparison to Literary Chinese, within the context of a campaign to phoneticize Sinitic languages. Chao is often misconstrued here as being anti-romanisation entirely given the creation of these poems, with Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den being memetically2 cited online as a titular example. However, this could not be further from the truth, and Chao himself notes such in Yuyan Wenti, believing to have been misrepresented by a rushed media interview. It should be noted that Chao himself was a proponent of romanisation, having been an architect of Gwoyeu Romatzyh (Chao, 1980) and General Chinese (Chao, 1983). Chao’s position was that he acknowledged that Chinese as a language family cannot be fully romanised: when studying philology, one should write in the script they are studying; when studying Chinese literature or history, characters are an obvious must; but in contexts such as science, engineering, agriculture, commerce, military affairs, and education, Chao believed his Gwoyeu Romatzyh was perfectly justified (Chao, 1980). It should nevertheless be noted that Sinitic languages already have some form of phoneticization: the Dungan language of the Mandarin family is cyrillized and has been for generations, and Southern Min often uses the Church Romanization promoted by missionaries due to the spoken word diverging too far from the Han script to fully map meanings anymore (Klöter, 2005). There is no greater case for the need for characters than Literary Chinese, where every character is of a single syllable, the syntax is based on Classical Chinese, and the script represents a semantic system that is fundamentally different to Mandarin Chinese (Chao, 1980; Fuller, 2024). This was Chao’s core argument: Literary Chinese is the absolute barrier in the pursuit of Chinese romanization.
Being made by a linguist, each of Chao’s works carries the same gimmick: every single syllable is the same, only differentiated by tone when read in Mandarin, yet they are all perfectly legible when read in Old or Middle Chinese. Ergo, should a Mandarin speaker hear these poems, they would sound completely incomprehensible. When one knows the characters and Literary Chinese, though, the meaning reveals itself. The goal of this work was to replicate Chao’s study and show the potential for variety within what could be a literary genre in its own right.
Methodology
With the aforementioned understanding, I chose /yi/ as my syllable to replicate this linguistic experiment. It is not terribly difficult to make one of these: /yi/ syllables are plentiful, and Chao demonstrated their potential in Aunt Yi. I used Pleco’s search function to find syllables with the term “yi” + the tone number, formed a lextionary, and inspected dictionaries to find and understand ancient meanings (Kroll et al., 2017; Love, 2025).
One challenge I faced with this is that one cannot decide a narrative before writing a one-syllable article; or at least, one must be extremely familiar with the wordstock to conceive a poem. The writer is dealt the cards, and they must write with them. Upon reviewing the lextionary produced, I chose the narrative of an individual killing another, fleeing, and, when seeking therapy for what they did, the psychologist, of the slain’s species, was not very forgiving. One can interpret this, including who is right or wrong, in many ways. What I will say is that this reflects some of my own past mistakes – and many have I made!
Another challenge is ensuring that what is written works within the poetic and grammatical constraints of Classical Chinese (Van Norden, 2019; Fuller, 2024), as well as considering the classical meanings of characters (Zhang and Chen, 2015; Lu, 2016; Kroll et al., 2017). Should this not be done, the work falls apart. I took some inspiration from 賦 Fu poetry as well, which commonly focuses heavily on one or two topics, uses an excessively wide vocabulary, and varies line lengths, aiming to be chanted to encapsulate a situation (Cai, 2007; Cui and Cai, 2012). While I did not focus on a single topic, the wide vocabulary and varied line lengths gave me security in my choices. I would therefore not call this a Fu – it is a one-syllable article through and through. It could perhaps be considered 志怪 Zhiguai literature, with its tall tales and odd premise being reminiscent of Pu Songling (Pu, 2017).
So, what is the result? Let the Hanyu Pinyin speak for itself:
Yī yī yì yì, yì yì, yī yì.
Yī yǐ yì, yǐ; yí, yǐ yì yì.
Yī yì yī yì, yì yì, yì yī.
Yì yī yì,“yī yì yì, yǐ yì!”
Yì yī yí:“Yī! Yì yī yì!”
Yī yǐ yì yì, yì yì, yī yì.
Yī yì yì yì. Yǐ yì yī.
References
Cai, Z. (2007) How to read Chinese poetry: guided anthology. Columbia University Press.
Ceng, X. and Chu, Y. (2022) 比较视野中的中国文化 [Bǐjiào shìyě zhōng de zhōngguó wénhuà]. 上海三联书店 [Shànghǎi sānlián shūdiàn].
Chao, Y.R. (1968) 語言問題 [Yǔyán wèntí]. 臺灣商務印書館 [Táiwān shāngwù yìn shūguǎn].
Chao, Y.R. (1980) 语言问题 [Yǔyán Wèntí]. 1st edn. 商务印书馆.
Chao, Y.R. (1983) 通字方案 [A project for General Chinese]. 商务印书馆 [Commercial Press].
Cheng, D. and Wang, Y. (2023) 幼学琼林·三百千 [Yòu xué qióng lín·sānbǎi qiān]. Revised edn. Edited by Z. Du. 万卷出版有限责任公司 [Wanjuan Publishing Co., Ltd.].
Cui, J. and Cai, Z. (2012) How to read Chinese poetry. Workbook. Columbia University Press.
Fuller, M.A. (2024) An introduction to Literary Chinese. 2nd edn. Harvard University Asia Center.
He, H. (2018) ‘The discourse flexibility of Zhao Yuanren [Yuen Ren Chao]’s homophonic text’, Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 46(1), pp. 149–176. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1353/jcl.2018.0005
He, H. (2019) ‘Why is homophonic discourse possible?’, Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 47(2), pp. 465–496. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26705070 (Accessed: 16th September 2025).
Klöter, H. (2005) Written Taiwanese. Harrassowitz Verlag.
Kong, Q. (2016) 论语 [The Confucian analects]. 1st edn. Translated by J. Legge and F. Wang. 中州古籍出版社 [Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House].
Kroll, P.W. et al. (2017) A student’s dictionary of Classical and Medieval Chinese. Revised edn. Edited by S.F. Teiser, M. Kern, and T. Brook. Brill.
Li, X. (ed) (2022) 现代汉语规范词典 [Xiandai Hanyu guifan cidian]. 4th edn. 外语敎学与硏究出版社 : 语文出版社 [Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press: Chinese Language Press].
Love, M. (2025) Pleco Chinese dictionary. Pleco Software. Available at: https://www.pleco.com/ (Accessed: 16th September 2025).
Lu, Z. (2016) 实用古代汉语词典 [Shiyong Gudai Hanyu Cidian]. 2nd edn. 甘肃教育出版社 [Gansu Education Publishing House].
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Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (2021) 国际中文教育中文水平等级标准 [Chinese proficiency grading standards for international Chinese language education]. Available at: http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/202103/W020210329527301787356.pdf (Accessed: 16 August 2025).
Pu, S. (2017) 聊斋志异 [Strange tales from a Chinese studio]. 1st edn. 凤凰出版社 [Fenghuang Publishing House].
Sturgeon, D. (2020) ‘Digitizing premodern text with the Chinese Text Project’, Journal of Chinese History, 4(2), pp. 486–498. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/jch.2020.19
Sturgeon, D. (2021) ‘Chinese Text Project: a dynamic digital library of premodern Chinese’, Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, 36(Supplement 1), pp. i101–i112. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqz046
Van Norden, B.W. (2019) Classical Chinese for everyone: a guide for absolute beginners. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.
Wang, J. (ed) (2021) 尔雅新注 [Ěryǎ Xīnzhù]. 1st hardcover edn. 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company].
Xu, S. (2015) 說文解字注 [Shuowen Jiezi Zhu]. 1st edn. Edited by Y. Duan and W. Xu. 鳳凰出版社 [Phoenix Media].
Yang, X. (2022) 輶轩使者绝代语释别国方言 [Yóu xuān shǐzhě juédài yǔ shì bié guó fāngyán]. 1st edn. Translated by X. Hua and S. You. 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company].
Zhang, Y. and Chen, T. (2015) 康熙字典 [Kāngxī Zìdiǎn]. Revised edn. Edited by H. Wang. 社会科学文献出版社 [Social Sciences Academic Press].
Zuo, Q. (ed) (2018) 左传 [The spring and autumn with Zuo Zhuan]. 1st edn. Translated by J. Legge, Y. Shi, and X. Zhang. 中州古籍出版社 [Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House].
Appendix A: Han Character Annotations
Because many of the Han characters used in this poem are obscure, it becomes necessary to include annotations. These will be extensively detailed to cover the full breadth of linguistic meaning. As there is an appendix with Simplified characters, both scripts are included. The criteria for inclusion was based on the 汉语水平考试 Chinese Proficiency Test 3.0’s Band 7-9 list published by the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (2021). All characters mentioned below are not on the cited list. Quotes from the Classical dictionaries3 are included not just for evidence, but also to make the table pseudo-bilingual; some are definitions, others refer to usage, depending on what was accessible to me at the time.
Table 1: Annotations for characters not within the HSK 7-9 vocabulary list (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2021) |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional | Simplified | Hanyu Pinyin | Components | English meaning | Classical Source(s) | Quote |
| 鷖 | 鹥 | yī | 殹 + 鸟 | Seagull, syn. 鸥鷗 (Kroll et al., 2017) | Jiyun in Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015) | 《集韻》煙奚切，𠀤音翳。水鳥。鷗也。一名水鴞。 |
| 壹 | yī | 士 + 冖 + 豆 | To concentrate solely on; single-minded (Kroll et al., 2017). In modern China, it is also an anti-fraud version of 一 (1) for use with bank notes (Kroll et al., 2017; Li, 2022). |
Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015), specifically citing the classics孟子 Mencius (Meng, 2016, p. 98) and左傳 Zhuo Zhuan (Zuo, 2018, p. 186).4 | 《孟子》志壹則動氣，氣壹則動志。 《左傳·昭二十年》若琴瑟之專壹，誰能聽之。 |
|
| 弋 | yì | 弋 (itself a radical) | To shoot (Kroll et al., 2017) | Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015) | 《疏》弋謂以繩繫矢而射也。 《列子·湯問篇》蒲且子之弋也。弱弓纖繳，乗風振之，連雙鶬於靑雲之際。 |
|
| 鷁 | 鹢 | yì | 益 + 鸟 | Egret, water bird. Defining it as an egret is a little difficult, as identification chiefly comes from a Spring and Autumn Annals description. Kroll et al. (2017) states it is a heron; Pleco states it is an egret-like bird (Love, 2025). |
Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Xu, 2015) | 《說文解字注》五歷切鷁鶃鳥也。 [字見《春秋經》文十六年。水鳥也。《博物志》曰：鷁雄雌相視則孕。或曰：雄鳴上風。雌鳴下風。薛綜曰：鷁首者，船頭象鷁鳥。厭水神。按今字多作鷁。] 从鳥。兒聲。 [五歷切。十六部。] 《春秋傳》曰：六鶃退飛。 [三傳皆同。今皆左兒右鳥。] 鶃或从鬲。 [兒聲鬲聲益聲皆十六部也。] 司馬相如鶃从赤。 [按赤聲古音在五部。而用爲鶃字者合韵也。葢《凡將篇》如此作。今《上林賦》濯鷁牛首。衹作鷁。] |
| 殪 | yì | 歹 + 壹 | To kill with a bow and arrow (Kroll et al., 2017). | Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Xu, 2015) | 《說文解字注》於計切殪死也。 [《左傳》。聲子射其馬。斬鞅。殪。將擊子車。子車射之。殪。《小雅・毛傳》，文穎注《上林賦》皆曰：壹發而死爲殪。是也。故其字從壹。按尚書言殪戎殷。殪，仆也。此引伸之義。《中庸》言壹戎衣。注。衣讀爲殷。聲之誤也。壹戎殷者，壹用兵伐殷也。郭忠恕《佩觿》乃引鄭注云：壹當爲殪。此記憶之誤耳。凡恃記憶而不檢閲者多此病。] 从𣦵。壹聲。 [形聲包會意。於計切。古音在十二部。] 古文殪。从死。 [從古文死。壹省聲。] | |
| 逸 | yì | 辶 + 兔 | To flee, escape, evade (Kroll et al., 2017). It comes from rabbits being able to flee. | Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Xu, 2015) Erya Xin Zhu (Wang, 2021, p. 125) |
《說文解字注》夷質切逸失也。 [此以曡韵爲訓。亡逸者，本義也。引伸之爲逸游，爲暇逸。] 从辵兔。 [會意。夷質切。十二部。] 兔謾訑善逃也。 [說从辵兔之意。謾，訑皆欺也。謾音蠻。訑《言部》作詑。音大和切。兔善逃，故从兔辵。猶隹善飛，故奪从手持隹而失之。皆亡逸之意。] 《尔雅新注》逸，諐，過也。 |
|
| 唈 | yì | 口 + 邑 | Shortness of breath; palpitations (Zhang and Chen, 2015; Love, 2025).5 | Erya in Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015; Wang, 2021, p. 142) | 《爾雅·釋言》僾唈也。 《註》嗚唈，短氣。 《疏》孫炎云：心唈也。 |
|
| 偯 | yǐ | 亻 + 哀 | To sob or wail.6 | Jiyun in Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015) | 《集韻》《韻會》隱豈切，𠀤音扆。哭餘聲。 | |
| 倚 | yǐ | 亻 + 奇 | To incline towards, to lean, to pause (Kroll et al., 2017). | Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015) | 《康熙》又偏也，側也。《禮·問喪》居于倚廬。 | |
| 黓 | yì | 黑 + 弋 | The colour black (Kroll et al., 2017). | Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015) | 《亥集下》《黑字部》 《廣韻》與職切《集韻》《韻會>逸職切，𠀤音弋。<廣雅>黑也。 又作弋。前漢·文帝贊>身衣弋綈。<註>如淳曰：弋，皁也。 又《爾雅·釋天》太歲在壬曰伭黓。 |
|
| 黟 | yī | 黑 + 多 | A shining black, associated with wood in classical sources (Xu, 2015; Zhang and Chen, 2015). | Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Xu, 2015) | 《說文解字注》烏雞切黟黑木也。 [《周書》王會篇夷用𨶲木。《古今注》。烏文木，出波斯國。南方艸木狀。文木樹高七八丈。色正黑。如水牛角。] 从黑。多聲。 [烏雞切。古音在十七部。] 丹楊有黟縣。 [《地理志》本作黟。師古所據作黝。乃誤本耳。今安徽徽州府黟縣是其地。] | |
| 亄 | yì | 壹 + 乚 | To be stingy and greedy. | Fangyan states that it is a dialect term specific to the state of Chu (Yang, 2022, p. 229). This claim is repeated in Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015). | 《方言》亄、嗇，貪也。荊汝江湘之郊凡貪而不施謂之亄，或謂之嗇，或謂之悋。悋，恨也。 | |
| 齮 | yǐ | 齒 + 奇 | To bite (Kroll et al., 2017). | Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Xu, 2015) | 《說文解字注》魚綺切齮齧也。 [史，《漢・田儋傳》。齮齕用事者墳墓。如淳曰：齮齕，猶齚齧也。齕，齩也。按凡從奇之字多訓偏。如掎訓偏引，齮訓側齧。《索隱》注高紀云：許愼以爲側齧。] 从齒。奇聲。 [魚綺切。古音在十七部。] | |
| 肄 | yì | 匕 + 矢 + 聿 | To exercise, train, practice, rehearse; to take pains and apply oneself; to examine or inspect (Kroll et al., 2017). | Fangyan states that it is a regional synonym from between the states of Qin and Jin (Yang, 2022, p. 7). However, here it means 馀 “remainder,” a unique classical meaning. It is mentioned in detail in Kangxi Dictionary where its other meanings are shown (Zhang and Chen, 2015). |
《方言》烈、枿，餘也。陳鄭之間曰枿，晉衛之間曰烈，秦晉之間曰肄，或曰烈。 《廣韻》習也。《左傳·文四年》臣以爲肄業及之也。《禮·檀弓》君命，大夫與士肄。《註》肄，習也。君有命，大夫則與士展習其事。 |
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| 噫 | yī | 口 + 意 | Sentence-final particle expressing grief; “alas!” (Kroll et al., 2017) | Shuowen Jiezi Zhu (Xu, 2015) notes it being used in the論語 [Analects of Confucius] (Kong, 2016, p. 132). | 《說文解字注》於介切噫飽出息也。 [各本作飽食。今依《玉篇》、《眾經音義》訂。息，鼻息也。《內則》。在父母舅姑之所。不敢噦噫。《莊子》。大塊噫氣。其名曰風。《靈樞經》曰：五藏氣心主噫。按噫字亦作餩。見《廣雅》。《玉篇》、《廣韵》於北烏克二反。高注《淮南書》曰：垓讀如人飮食太多，以思下垓之垓。以思下垓之垓，乃以息上餩之餩之誤。高注多言心中滿該。亦謂此也。] 从口。意聲。 [於介切。古音在一部。《論語》。子曰：噫，天喪予。鄭氏《毛詩》。噫此皇父。噫厥哲婦。皆爲有所痛傷之聲。] | |
| 刈 | yì | 乂 + 刂 | To mow or chop down; can be used as a noun for a sickle/scythe (Kroll et al., 2017). By the time of玉篇 Yupian (c.543, see Kangxi Dictionary citation in quotes), 400 years after Shuowen Jiezi, semantic broadening had occurred to imply killing, which this poem uses. |
Kangxi Dictionary and Shuowen Jiezi (Xu, 2015; Zhang and Chen, 2015). | 《子集下》《刀字部》 〔古文〕𠛄《唐韻》魚肺切《集韻》魚刈切《韻會》疑刈切《正韻》倪制切，𠀤音乂。《說文》芟草也。[…] 又《玉篇》取也，殺也。 又《韻會》絕也。 |
|
| 佁 | yǐ | 亻 + 台 | Stuck fast; inert, immobile, at a standstill, easy and relaxed, slow and measured (Kroll et al., 2017). Here, the appearance of not moving forward is used to imply hesitation. |
Jiyun in Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015) | 《子集中》《人字部》 《廣韻》羊已切《集韻》養里切，𠀤音以。固滯貌。張楫曰：不前也。 又《集韻》夷在切。《說文》癡貌。讀若騃。 又《呂氏春秋》佁蹶之機。 |
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| 圛 | yì | 囗 + 䜌 | The rising up of mist or clouds, a meaning mentioned in尙書 Shangshu (Kroll et al., 2017) | Shuowen Jiezi (Xu, 2015) | 《說文解字》羊益切圛回行也。从囗𥇡聲。《尙書》：「曰圛。」圛，升雲半有半無。讀若驛。 | |
| 伊 | yī | 亻 + 尹 | Here, it is used as a third person pronoun, usage associated with Wu Chinese. In Classical usage, it can be used this way, but the meaning expands further. It is also commonly used for exclamation/rhythm and this/that. Pre-Han dynasty, it is used to introduce a statement contrary to what is expected (Kroll et al., 2017). It can also be a name, and is among those in the Hundred Family Surnames (Cheng and Wang, 2023, p. 224) |
Kangxi Dictionary (Zhang and Chen, 2015) Hundred Family Surnames (Cheng and Wang, 2023, p. 224) |
《子集中》《人字部》 〔古文〕𦯴𠈽《唐韻》於脂切《集韻》於夷切《韻會》幺夷切《正韻》於宜切，𠀤音蛜。彼也。《詩·秦風》所謂伊人，在水一方。 又維也。《儀禮·士冠禮》嘉薦伊脯。《揚雄·河東賦》伊年暮春，將瘞后土，禮靈祇。《註》師古曰：伊，是也。 又姓。 《百家姓》全郗班仰，秋仲伊宮，甯仇欒暴，甘針厲戎 |
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Appendix B: Simplified Chinese Version
For the sake of completeness and accessibility, this is a version of the poem in Simplified Chinese.
《鹥诣医鹢忆·汐洛思》
鹥壹弋鹢，鹢殪，鹥逸。
鹥已唈，偯；疑，倚异意。
鹥诣医鹢，鹢黓，翼黟。
鹢医忆，“鹥异亄，齮肄！”
鹢医咦：“噫！刈鹥翼！”
鹥佁肄译，弋鹢，黟圛。
伊黓鹢殪。
以译鹥。
Copyright Statement
© Llinos Evans. This publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence (CC BY-ND).
All poems are available online: https://www.gushiwen.cn/shiwenv_4b4ce1decf73.aspx, https://www.gushiwen.cn/shiwenv_29c3f37284ae.aspx, https://www.douban.com/note/198170836/?_i=5775698NIgwjE5↩︎
Pertaining to the replication of concepts, usually in an ironic way, as seen in memes.↩︎
For an easy way to view Classical dictionary sources digitally, particularly Kangxi Dictionary and Shuowen Jiezi, I must recommend https://zi.tools/, which includes modern equivalents as well.↩︎
Oddly enough, my version of Mencius corroborates the Kangxi Dictionary quote, whilst my copy of the Zuo Zhuan, from the same publisher, does not. Because they are Simplified Chinese editions, my assumption is this is due to differing simplification ideologies between Baihua translators, as Zuo Zhuan has an additional translator involved. The quote can be verified at the following Chinese Text Project (Sturgeon, 2020, 2021) link: https://ctext.org/pre-qin-and-han/ens?searchu=%E8%8B%A5%E7%90%B4%E7%91%9F%E4%B9%8B%E5%B0%88%E5%A3%B9%EF%BC%8C%E8%AA%B0%E8%83%BD%E8%81%BD%E4%B9%8B%E3%80%82↩︎
Kangxi Dictionary is not an English-medium source, so this definition is translated by myself.↩︎
Translated from Kangxi Dictionary.↩︎